UPSC 2024 main : Underline the changes in the field of society and economy from the Rig Vedic to the later Vedic period.

 **Changes in Society and Economy from the Rig Vedic to the Later Vedic Period**

The transition from the Rig Vedic to the Later Vedic period marked a significant shift in both societal structure and economic practices. This transformation was driven by various factors such as the expansion of territories, the advent of new technologies, and the consolidation of social hierarchies.

### **1. Societal Changes**

**Social Structure**:  

In the Rig Vedic period, society was relatively egalitarian, with a fluid social structure. The varna system, though present, was not rigidly enforced. Social distinctions were based on occupation rather than birth, and there was considerable flexibility in social mobility.

In contrast, the **Later Vedic period** saw a more **rigid stratification of society**. The varna system became more formalized, with clear distinctions between Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (merchants and farmers), and Shudras (servants). The Brahmins and Kshatriyas solidified their dominance, while the Vaishyas were relegated to economic activities. The Shudras, previously mentioned only sporadically in the Rig Veda, became a distinctly oppressed class in this period.

**Role of Women**:  

In the Rig Vedic period, women enjoyed considerable freedom, including participation in religious rituals and intellectual discussions. Some women were seers and composed hymns in the Vedas.

By the Later Vedic period, **women's status had declined**. Their participation in public life and religious rituals became restricted. Practices such as child marriage and the concept of **stridharma** (woman’s duty to serve her husband) started gaining prominence. The preference for male heirs also became pronounced during this time.

**Religion and Rituals**:  

The Rig Vedic period focused on the worship of nature gods like Indra, Agni, and Varuna, with simple sacrifices and rituals to please these deities.

In the Later Vedic period, **religion became more complex and ritualistic**. The importance of sacrifices, particularly the **Ashvamedha** (horse sacrifice) and **Rajasuya** (royal consecration), increased, and the role of the Brahmins as intermediaries between the gods and people became more pronounced. The notion of **Brahmanical orthodoxy** took shape, emphasizing ritual purity and the supremacy of the Brahmin class.

### **2. Economic Changes**

**Agriculture**:  

The Rig Vedic economy was primarily pastoral, centered around cattle rearing. Land ownership was communal, and cattle were considered the main form of wealth.

In the Later Vedic period, the economy shifted towards **agriculture**. The use of **iron tools**, especially iron plows, facilitated the clearing of forests and expansion of arable land. This shift to a settled agricultural economy led to the growth of private land ownership and **agrarian villages**.

**Trade and Commerce**:  

While trade existed in the Rig Vedic period, it was relatively limited, with barter being the primary mode of exchange. The economy was not yet monetized, and long-distance trade was minimal.

During the Later Vedic period, **trade and commerce expanded** significantly. The use of **coins** like **Nishka** and **Satamana** began, marking the beginning of a money-based economy. Trade routes expanded, linking the Vedic communities to other regions, fostering the exchange of goods like grains, metals, and luxury items.

**Crafts and Professions**:  

In the Rig Vedic period, crafts and professions were more generalized and not highly specialized. Most people were engaged in agriculture and cattle rearing, with limited engagement in specialized crafts.

By the Later Vedic period, the rise of **specialized crafts** such as pottery, weaving, metalwork, and carpentry became more prominent. Artisans and merchants began to form **guilds**, which played a crucial role in the economy. The emergence of urban centers in certain regions also facilitated the growth of trade and specialization.

**Cattle Wealth**:  

In the Rig Vedic period, cattle were the primary measure of wealth, and wars were often fought over cattle raids.

While cattle remained important in the Later Vedic period, **land became the new measure of wealth**. Land ownership was highly prized, and the distribution of land became a crucial part of the social and political order. This shift reflected the growing importance of agriculture in the economy.

### **3. Political Economy**

**Political Structure**:  

The Rig Vedic political system was relatively decentralized. Tribal chiefs or **Rajas** led the people, but their authority was limited, and decision-making often involved a council of elders or the **Sabha** and **Samiti**.

In the Later Vedic period, the political structure became more hierarchical. The **king (Raja)** emerged as a more powerful figure, often claiming **divine sanction** for his rule. The rise of larger kingdoms, such as **Magadha** and **Kosala**, marked the transition from tribal chiefdoms to more centralized monarchies. The **king’s role in administering land and taxes** became more formalized, with the support of Brahmins to legitimize their rule through elaborate rituals.

**Taxation and Land Grants**:  

In the Rig Vedic period, there was no formal taxation system, and the economy was based on voluntary tributes and gifts.

In the Later Vedic period, a more structured system of **taxation** emerged, particularly in the form of agricultural produce. **Land grants** to Brahmins and royal officials became common, further institutionalizing the importance of land in the economy.

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### **Conclusion**

The transition from the Rig Vedic to the Later Vedic period was characterized by profound changes in both societal and economic structures. **Society** became more stratified and rigid, with the emergence of a caste-based hierarchy and the diminishing role of women. **Economically**, the shift from a pastoral to an agrarian-based system brought about increased specialization, trade, and the importance of land ownership. These changes laid the foundation for the development of larger political entities and a more complex socio-political order in ancient India.